What were the diplomatic efforts made by China to resolve the Opium Wars peacefully?

During the Opium Wars, China made several diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict peacefully. These efforts can be categorized into three main phases: pre-war negotiations, mid-war negotiations, and post-war negotiations.

1. Pre-war negotiations:
Before the outbreak of the First Opium War (1839-1842), China attempted to address the opium issue through diplomatic means. The Chinese government sent Lin Zexu, a prominent official, to Guangzhou (Canton) to suppress the opium trade. Lin Zexu confiscated and destroyed large quantities of opium, leading to tensions with British traders. However, he also wrote a series of letters to Queen Victoria and British officials, appealing for the cessation of the opium trade and urging them to respect Chinese laws. These diplomatic efforts aimed to resolve the issue without resorting to military conflict.

2. Mid-war negotiations:
During the First Opium War, China continued to seek a peaceful resolution. In 1841, the Qing government appointed Qishan as a special envoy to negotiate with the British. Qishan signed the Convention of Chuenpi in 1841, which marked the first official agreement between China and Britain. This treaty aimed to end the war by establishing peace and regulating trade. However, the terms of the agreement were heavily skewed in favor of the British, leading to further tensions and the continuation of the conflict.

3. Post-war negotiations:
After the conclusion of the First Opium War, China made additional diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict. In 1842, the Treaty of Nanjing was signed between China and Britain. This treaty, which is considered highly unequal, forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain, pay a large indemnity, open several ports for trade, and grant extraterritorial rights to British citizens. Despite the unfavorable terms, the treaty marked the end of the First Opium War and initiated a series of "unequal treaties" between China and Western powers.

In summary, China made diplomatic efforts throughout the Opium Wars to resolve the conflict peacefully. However, these efforts were largely unsuccessful due to the unequal power dynamics and the British desire to protect their economic interests in China. The Opium Wars ultimately resulted in significant territorial and economic concessions for China, leading to a long-lasting impact on its history and relationship with the Western powers.